The French revolution is known as the political, social, economic and military movement that emerged in France in 1789; The French revolution brought as a consequence the collapse of the absolutist monarchy, which until then had ruled in France, at the same time that it caused the establishment of a democratic republican government and also, the initiation of a new era called as The contemporary era. The French revolution spread throughout the world the ideals of freedom and fraternity, as well as that of popular sovereignty; and spread, primarily, the knowledge of the fundamental rights of man and citizen.
Causes of the French Revolution
- The fundamental causes that originated the French Revolution were:
Monarchical absolutism, which was characterized by the unlimited power of the sovereign, whose authority was not subject to any control. - Social, political and economic inequality.
- The lack of freedoms and rights. To these causes must be added an important factor:the powerful influence of new ideas.
Background of the French Revolution:
The old regime
The old regime is the political, social and economic state that France went through before the revolution. This state was characterized by the predominance of royal absolutism, as well as injustices, inequalities and privileges, which constituted, as we have already said, the true causes of the French revolution .
Political
France was ruled by an absolute monarchy that ruled with unlimited power. The king, who believed himself designated by God to govern, proceeded arbitrarily, since he did not account for his acts to anyone; he spent how and when he wanted the State revenues; he appointed the officials; declared war and signed peace; he dictated laws; he created taxes and could even dispose of the assets of his subjects when he deemed it convenient. There was no individual freedom, since the sovereign could order the arrest of any citizen without just cause; there was also no freedom of conscience and no book or newspaper could be published except under the control of censorship. On the other hand, the laws, which were diverse, were not applied equally or with the same rigor:thus we have that for the same crime the penalty was not the same, in the case of a nobleman and a peasant.
Socially
The social organization of France was based on inequality and privilege. Three social classes were distinguished, namely:Clergy, Nobility and Plain State, being the first two privileged.
The clergy
It was the first social class due to its great prestige and influence as well as its considerable wealth. His extensive properties covered precisely a quarter of the total area of France, and, on the other hand, said economic heritage grew considerably thanks to the tithes contributed by the faithful as well as the exemption from paying fixed taxes that they enjoyed. It was divided into High and Low Clergy. Most of the wealth benefited only the High Clergy made up of bishops and abbots, who were mostly of noble origin and lived in Versailles at the King's court. The lower clergy, formed by priests and vicars, exercised their mission in the provinces, were of modest economic condition and came from the Llano State, due to this, they sympathized with the Revolution.
The nobility
The nobles formed the privileged second class of France; they owned large extensions of land, and, likewise, they received from the peasants who worked on them, the so-called feudal rights; they paid taxes only in certain cases. They occupied the main positions in the government and in the church, as well as in the armed forces. The nobility was divided into the Great Nobility, who led a life of luxury, pomp and riches in the palace of Versailles alongside the king, and the lesser nobility or provincial nobility. The latter had moderate resources and lived in her possessions in contact with the people whose needs she knew and whose ideals she equally sympathized with.
The Flat State
It was constituted by the largest population in France, but, in turn, by the least privileged and richest. At the head of this social class was the bourgeoisie, made up of industrialists, merchants and professionals; who over the years, had managed to conquer a solid economic situation and a vast cultural preparation, which made them, precisely, the promoters of the revolution.
At a lower level were the artisans and the peasants or peasants, who led a truly miserable life, since they had to bear heavy economic burdens imposed by the government, the church and the nobles, such as the payment of tithes to the clergy, the census and other taxes to the lords and the state, keeping only 20 percent of their total income. The bourgeoisie was the social class that made the revolution. It is calculated that of the population of France (1789), estimated at 23 million inhabitants, only 300 thousand belonged to the privileged classes (Clergy and Nobility).
Economically
From the economic point of view, the situation in France had the following characteristics:
- Monopoly of wealth, especially of land, for the sole benefit of the Clergy and Nobility.
- Payment of taxes, as well as other tax levies, exclusively by the third state or plain state.
- Decline of trade and industry, due to the lack of means of production as well as the existence of internal customs barriers that hindered commercial exchange. They were joined to such causes:low wages, as the lack of freedom for agriculture, industry and commerce.
- Excessive waste of fiscal money in support, mainly, of the court of Versailles.
Stages of the French Revolution
We distinguish the following stages in the development of the French Revolution.
Monarchy Period (1789 – 1792)
The monarchical stage comprises from the outbreak of the French Revolution (June 1789) until September 21, 1792, the date on which the monarchy was abolished.
States General (1789)
The Estates General were convened by Louis XVI, King of France. They met in Versailles on April 5, 1789. The Estates General were a kind of assembly (parliament) made up of 1,200 deputies (300 from the clergy, 300 from the nobility and 600 from the Third Estate or Plain State).
The economic crisis forced the French sovereign to bring them together, so that they could adopt the most convenient measures . The Third Estate wanted to take advantage of said assembly to present petitions favorable to the people; the king and the nobility did not take these reforms into account. The request that they did not take into account was the right to vote per head, which was favorable to them because they were the majority, since they wanted the vote by order to subsist (which favored the privileged classes:the clergy and the nobility). Then the Third Estate defied the order of Louis XVI and met separately.
National Assembly (1789)
The National Assembly was created on June 17, 1789, it is the one that marked the outbreak of the revolution. The king closed the session room of the National Assembly which occupied the Ball Game room in which the deputies swore not to separate until they had given a constitution to France.
Constituent Assembly (1789 – 1791)
The French sovereign yielded to the events of the National Assembly, inviting the three social classes to meet. Thus arose the Constituent Assembly. The king had lost his authority and the absolute monarchy was coming to an end. The main events were:
The Storming of the Bastille On July 14, 1789, the people of Paris attacked the Bastille fortress and occupied it. The Bastille was the symbol of despotism.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , was promulgated by the Assembly on August 26, 1789. Feudal rights had previously been abolished on August 4, 1789. The declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen consists of 17 articles. They refer mainly to the fact that all men are equal; that sovereignty resides in the nation; that natural rights, such as liberty, equality, property, security and resistance to oppression should not be violated, nor should freedom of thought and belief.
The Constitution of 1791 was promulgated , of monarchical tendency that sanctioned the declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen, as well as the existence of three powers:Legislative, Executive and Judicial.
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was promulgated , by which the goods of the Church passed into the power of the State and the appointment of the ecclesiastical authorities would be made from now on by the election of the people.
Escape of the King , Louis XVI tried to flee abroad but was discovered in Varennes and then arrested and imprisoned in the Tuileries.
The Legislative Assembly (1791 – 1792)
This assembly was more hostile to the monarchy, the main events that arose during them were:
Declaration of War on Austria , where the first actions favored the Austro-Prussians; but the revolutionary armies, commanded by Doumouriez, won great victories at Valmy and Gemapes (1792).
The Assault on the Tuileries and the final prison of Louis XVI.
Emergence of Political Parties , the Fuldences (monarchists), the Girondins (moderate Republicans) and the Jacobins and the Mountains (radical left).
Republican Period (1792 – 1804)
The Republican Stage that includes from September 21, 1792 to November 9, 1799, in which Napoleon Bonaparte staged the coup, called the 18th of Brumaire and established the consulate for his benefit. The government of the consulate, with Napoleon as the absolute owner of France, was, properly speaking, a stage of transition from the republic to the empire and lasted until 1804.
The Convention (1792-1795)
Dissolved the Legislative Assembly, the National Convention was formed. The main acts of said Convention were:
– I decree the abolition of the monarchy and proclaim the republic.
– I sanction universal suffrage (the right to vote for all citizens).
– Process and sentence to death Louis XVI. Execution that took place in January 1793.
The time of terror emerges .
The Age of Terror; In this a revolutionary government was formed that, under the direction of Maximilien Robespierre, implanted the era of terror and sent thousands of detainees and suspects to the scaffold. Violence and cruelty reigned, because even the leaders themselves such as Marat, Danton, etc., succumbed violently, as did Marie Antoinette, the wise Lavoisier and finally Robespierre himself, who was also executed by his enemies of the convention. The government of terror was made up of three committees:The Public Salvation Committee, the General Security Committee, and the Revolutionary Court .
The Directory (1795 – 1799)
The National Convention promulgated the constitution of Year III, which established the Directory, a moderate republican government that had the following organization:
The Executive Branch , in charge of the board of directors, made up of 5 members or directors.
The Legislative Power , made up of two councils:that of the 500 and that of the elders . The directory had to face foreign armies; it is then when the figure of Napoleon begins to stand out. On November 9, 1788 (coup d'état of the 18th brumaire), the Grand Corsican took over the government and established the consulate, a transitional government to the empire.
The Consulate (1799 – 1804)
For the coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799) Napoleon abolished the Directory and established the consulate, republican in appearance, but properly monarchical in tendency. The establishment of the Consulate was sanctioned by the Constitution of Year III. The Consulate consisted of two powers:
The Executive Branch , formed by three consuls, being the main figure the first Consul (Napoleon) owner of the government.
The Legislative Power , which consisted of a Council of State, the Tribunate and a Legislative Body (300 representatives and a senate).
Imperial Period (1804 – 1815)
The Imperial Stage comprises from May 18, 1804, when the empire was established, Napoleon being proclaimed emperor by the Senate with the name of Napoleon I.
From then on, it was the desire of the Great Corzo to establish the universal monarchy. He inaugurated a personal, absolute government. He surrounded himself with a brilliant court made up of his relatives and generals, to whom he granted noble titles.
He gave great impetus to cultural activity, industry and commerce, he passed wise laws (Codes). He dreamed of making France the First Nation of the World.
Military Actions
Many great military victories brought him fame and dominance. They were the following:
- Battle of Trafalgar (1805)
Where the French fleet that intended to invade England was destroyed by Admiral Nelson, until the year 1805, when he was definitively defeated at Waterloo and then taken prisoner by the English, an event that marked the end of the Imperial Stage or Napoleonic Era. . - Battle of Austerlitz (1805)
The Battle of Austerlitz was the battle where Napoleon completely defeated the considerably superior Austro-Russian armies. It was his battle model for the formidable tactics employed. - Battle of Jena (1806)
Battle that allowed Napoleon to occupy Berlin.
The Continental Bloc
Napoleon thought to starve England, for this he decreed the continental blockade, prohibiting all trade with England to European nations; the results were adverse.
As Pope Pius VII did not join such a blockade, Napoleon imprisoned him and occupied the Estates of the church. Portugal was also invaded by the French, Juan VI fled to Brazil.
Invasion of Spain
It began in 1808 and the occupation lasted until 1813, the year in which the invaders were expelled from the country with the help of the English. Godoy's betrayal and the ineptitude and cowardice of Carlos IV and Fernando VII, facilitated the elevation of José I, as King of Spain. The fight was heroic. All of Spain became a battlefield. The French suffered defeats at Bailén and finally at the Battle of Vitoria.
The invaders lost more than 300 thousand men.
Russian Campaign
It began in 1812 and ended with the French withdrawal at the end of the same year, more than 400 thousand soldiers, under the command of Napoleon, invaded Russia and managed to occupy Moscow. But the Russians used the "scorched earth" tactic, depriving the enemy of all means, giving all recourse; In addition, the harsh winter and the fierce resistance and attack of the Cossacks determined Napoleon's disastrous retreat towards France. The most important battles were:Moscowa, which made it easier for Napoleon to occupy Moscow and, finally, Beresina, unfavorable to the invaders.
Battle of Leipzig
A powerful coalition army (of English, Russian, Prussian, Austrian, Swedish, etc.) faced Napoleon at Leipzig (1813), defeating him. They then occupied Paris, Napoleon abdicated the crown and was appointed sovereign of the island of Elba. The monarchy was restored with Louis XVIII as King of France.
Battle of Waterloo
Napoleon was not resigned to continue as king of the small island of Elba. The unpopularity of Louis XVIII facilitated his return to France, in March 1815. He remained in government for ONE HUNDRED DAYS (The Hundred Days of Napoleon). The European powers declared him "outlawed as an enemy and disturber of world peace." A powerful coalition army met Napoleon at Waterloo (Belgium) and defeated him (1815). The great Corzo abdicated the crown and was later captured by the English. Taken prisoner to the island of Saint Helena, he died in 1821. The empire and Napoleon had come to an end.