In parallel with the unification of Italy, the unification of Germany is also an important event in nineteenth-century European history. According to modern definitions of nation, a German nation in Europe has its own language, its own past and its own tradition. But this entire region was never ruled by one person. The first Holy Roman Emperor, Charlemagne, is called by both the French and the Germans as their own. The Holy Roman Empire was more non-German in nature.
When the feeling of nationalism emerged in Europe after the Renaissance, the roots of nationalism began to spread in Germany along with the growth of the Protestant movement, nationalism and capitalism. But the biggest problem was that for centuries Germany was divided into big and small states and the rulers of these states had established their disguised sovereignty. The Holy Roman Empire, which tied all of this together, was dominated by extra-German interests, and the Roman Emperor opposed demands for autonomy or independence of any kind. But after the Thirty Years' War, when the Treaty of Westphalia was signed, a new Germany was born. A parallel leadership of Austria was emerging in Germany and German identity was beginning to be expressed in literature.
Although Germany was influenced by the new ideas generated by the French Revolution, the most practical step towards unification came when Napoleon trampled all of Central Europe and dissolved the Holy Roman Empire. Karad, a 'Rhine federation' of 39 states around the Rhine River and created the new state of Westphalia. Thus it was only after the victories of Napoleon that the process of uniting the states in Germany began. According to Lipson, 'It is one of the jokes of history that the father of modern Germany was Napoleon.'
After Napoleon's defeat, the Vienna Congress dissolved Napoleon's system in 1815, but by then the feeling of nationalism had taken root and the yearning for German territories to come closer Was. Under Metternich's leadership, the 38 German states in Vienna were organized into a loose federation, headed by Austria. There was a provision to convene a session of the Federal Assembly in Frankfurt, but its members were not elected by the people but were nominated by the kings. Here ordinary resolutions could be passed by a two-thirds majority. Consensus was necessary for constitutional or fundamental changes. The rulers of the small states of Germany were opposed to the new ideas and disliked the talk of national unity, because they feared losing their influence after unification. Not only this, the reactionary Prime Minister of Austria, Metternich was completely determined to suppress the feeling of nationalism. Thus the unification desire of the German patriots could not materialize.
In Italy, where Metternich tried to prevent the expansion of consciousness by imposing strict controls on students and teachers through the Karlsbaud Ordinances of 1819, on the other hand some economic elements in German Bringing the states closer. In 1832, 18 states of Germany under the leadership of Prussia organized an organization of border taxes 'Zolverein ' and imposed the same type of customs duty in all German states. Due to this arrangement, not only did trade and commerce develop in Germany, but it also initiated the feeling of unity in the German states. It is said that Zolverein had prepared the future path of political unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia.
Unification of Italy
1830 and 1848 's revolutions (Revolutions of 1830 and 1848)
In order to awaken the feeling of national unity among the people of Germany, many secret committees were established inside the country which were spreading new ideas in the country. This is the reason that the people of Germany, excited by the French Revolution of 1830, also revolted. But these revolts were suppressed by the repetition of the Carlsbad ordinances.
The revolution of 1848 was more widespread, leading to the downfall of reactionary Metternich. At this time the German liberals wanted constitutional reform on the one hand, while on the other their goal was also the unification of Germany. An attempt was made to establish an all-German Empire and liberal rule through the Parliament of Frankfurt. Parliament decided to expel Austria from the new union and form a two-chamber parliament headed by the Prussian ruler. The prospect of reunification of Germany was beginning to be realized, but in 1849 Frederick William IV, the ruler of Prussia, refused to assume the position of emperor. There were many reasons for this. The invitation was not given by the rulers, but by the people's representatives. In such a situation, he only considered it an insult to assume the office of constitutional monarch. In addition, this task would not have been possible without annoying the Austrian emperor and without war. Prussia also tried to bring the states closer by forming a federation of rulers, but even then Austria and Prussia became rivals. Therefore the first phase of integration became a period of aspirations and efforts.
At this stage it became clear that integration cannot be a solution by itself. It will have to be imposed from above and for this the administration will have to take the lead, whenever possible. It also became clear that spontaneous constitutional and liberal methods would not work. Similarly it also became clear that the union of rulers, as Prussia wanted to form, would not succeed as Austria would oppose it. Thus in the mid-nineteenth century it seemed that the question of German unification had been suppressed and that Austria's dominance and priority would continue for centuries. The German patriots were dismayed when a historic change took place and the credit goes to William and Bismarck of Prussia.
William First: After the death of Frederick William IV in 1861, his brother William I ascended the throne of Prussia. William's reign proved to be historic for Prussia and Germany. William was a skilled ruler. He had fought against Napoleon and especially wanted to reorganize the Prussian army. He appointed Fanrun as his Minister of War and ordered the Prussian army to be a model army. But for the massive expansion of the army, money was needed and only the Parliament had the right to give additional funds. Parliament approved money for one year with great difficulty, but when the money was not approved for the second year, there was a tussle between the king and the parliament. William was in trouble because he, like other autocratic rulers, did not want to dissolve the parliament if there was opposition. At the same time, he called Bismarck, the skilled and famous diplomat of Prussia, to Berlin. Both Bismarck and William decided to side with each other. As a result, in 1862, William appointed Bismarck as the Chancellor (Prime Minister) of Prussia. The cooperation of the two proved decisive for German unification.
Bismarck : Otto Eduard Leopold Bismarck was born in 1815 to a noble family in Prussia (Bredenberg). He was educated in Berlin. He dreamed of a great role for Germany. He had no faith in democracy and was in some sense a supporter of Machiavelli's policy. Once the goal was set, he was ready to do anything to fulfill it. In 1847 he was elected a member of the Prussian House of Representatives. He was the representative of Prussia in the German Federation and was familiar with the efforts of German unification. He had been Germany's ambassador to France and Russia, and in this position not only gave him an opportunity to understand the political situation in Europe, but he had also become familiar with the character of people like the Tsar of Russia and Napoleon of France.
Bismarck knew that the unification of Germany would be under the leadership of Prussia and for this it was necessary to fight with Austria. For this struggle, the administration will have to be strengthened from the military point of view. That is why he was also a supporter of Fanrun's military reforms. Bismarck was of the clear opinion that the big questions are not solved by speeches, for them an 'iron policy' is necessary.
As chancellor, Bismarck accepted William's policy of not dissolving the House of Representatives. But he kept investing money in the expansion of the army by disregarding the assembly, collecting taxes every year, and making Prussia financially and militaryally strong and preparing it for future conflicts. Fanrun's plans continued to be implemented and the army expanded under the leadership of Fan Moltke.
Bismarck was a skilled chess player and thought of his moves in advance. He had already planned three wars for the unification of Germany. First, for a test of strength against Denmark, second against Austria to expel opponents of unification from Germany and third against France to demonstrate and recognize German power.
War of Crimea 1853–1856 AD (War of Crimea 1853–1856 AD)
War with Denmark , February 1864 (War with Denmark, February 1864)
First Bismarck tested his power against Denmark. The two princely states, Schlesving and Hallstein, were under Danish rule, but were not part of Denmark. Hallstein was a member of the German Union and the population there was also German, while Schleswig was half German and half Dane. In 1852 at the London Conference, the rulers of Europe accepted the power of Denmark over these princely states on the condition that they would never be completely merged.
When the wave of nationalism spread in Denmark like other countries in the nineteenth century, in 1863 AD, the Danish ruler Christian IX made a new constitution and got Halstein completely in Denmark. and gave autonomy to Schleswing. This act of Christian X was a violation of the London Agreement of 1852, so the German states opposed it.
Bismarck wanted to annex the territories of Schleswig and Halstein, but he planned to accomplish this task not alone, but in collaboration with Austria. He did not agree to diplomatically send troops to the German Diet against Denmark and proposed to Austria to defend the Treaty of London. Austria found it appropriate to cooperate with Prussia because if Prussia had intervened alone in this matter, Austria's influence in Germany would have been reduced.
Prussia and Austria jointly invaded Denmark in 1864. Denmark was badly defeated and a treaty was signed in Vienna. Denmark had to deal with Schleswig and Hallstein as well as Lionsburg. Bismarck became aware of the strength of the Prussian army and the weaknesses of Austria. He was convinced that his plan was headed in the right direction.
Gestin Agreement: Prussia and Austria took the territories of Schleswig and Halstein from Denmark, but there was a difference of opinion between Prussia and Austria over the distribution of this spoils. Ultimately, an agreement was reached between Prussia and Austria on 14 August 1865 in Gestein, according to which the management of Schleswing was entrusted to Prussia and Hallstein to Austria. Prussia bought Lionberg's territory from Austria. The Gestein Agreement was Bismarck's diplomatic victory, covering the rift. This is where the second phase of Bismarck's plan began.
War with Austria , 1866 (War with Austria, 1866)
Bismarck knew that Prussia's war with Austria for the unification of Germany was the demand of history. He started preparations in 1865 to make Austria friendless in Europe with his diplomatic moves. Bismarck knew that England would not interfere in this war because it was following a policy of isolation. Russia was an old friend of Bismarck and had also helped Russia in suppressing the revolt in Poland, so he was sure that Russia would not come against him. France was the only country that could help Austria. Bismarck secretly met Napoleon III at Viariz. Being entangled in Mexico and perhaps because of the greed of some frontier territories, Napoleon agreed to remain neutral in the future Austria-Prussian war. Italy's Piedmont was still incensed by Austria's dominance over Venetia. Bismarck made a secret agreement with Piedmont against Austria in 1866 and after the war it was decided to merge Venetia with Italy. Now Bismarck began to look for excuses for war with Austria.
Bismarck noticed that the people of Halstein were not happy and agitated to meet in Augustenburg. He put this thing in front of Austria. He got a blunt reply that it was an Austrian matter and he had nothing to worry about. आस्ट्रिया ने दोनों प्रांतों का प्रश्न जर्मन डायट में उठा दिया। बिस्मार्क ने इसे गेस्टीन समझौते का उल्लंघन बताया और हालस्टीन में प्रशा की सेना भेज दी। इस प्रकार दोनों ही रियासतों पर प्रशा का अधिकार हो गया। क्षुब्ध आस्ट्रिया को प्रशा के विरुद्ध युद्ध की घोषणा करनी पड़ी।
सेडोवा का युद्ध: प्रशा की तैयारी सुनियोजित थी और उसकी सेना युद्ध के लिए पूर्णतः तैयार थी। आस्ट्रिया का तोपखाना बेहतर था, लेकिन प्रशा के पास ऐसी राइफलें थीं जो एक बार में कई फायर कर सकती थीं। अंततः 1866 में सेडोवा के निर्णायक युद्ध में आस्ट्रिया बुरी तरह पराजित हुआ। इटली ने वादे के अनुसार वेनेशिया पर हमला किया था और वहाँ उसकी पराजय हुई थी, परंतु आस्ट्रिया की सेना को विभाजित रखकर इटली ने उसकी पराजय को आसान बना दिया था। शीघ्र ही अधिकांश जर्मनी पर प्रशा का कब्जा हो गया। सेडोवा में बिस्मार्क की विजय और आस्ट्रिया की पराजय से नेपोलियन की आँखें खुली रह गईं। अंततः नेपोलियन की मध्यस्थता से प्राग की संधि से युद्ध समाप्त हो गया।
प्राग की संधि: प्राग की संधि में बिस्मार्क ने एक बार फिर अपना कौशल दिखाया। वादे के मुताबिक वेनेशिया इटली को दे दिया गया, लेकिन स्वयं प्रशा ने एक इंच भूमि भी नहीं ली। पराजित आस्ट्रिया को बस एक छोटी-सी रकम हर्जाने के रूप में देनी पड़ी। आस्ट्रिया के नेतृत्व वाला जर्मन संघ भंग कर दिया गया। श्लेसविग और हालस्टीन के क्षेत्र प्रशा को मिल गये।
बिस्मार्क ने आस्ट्रिया के साथ एक पराजित देश जैसा व्यवहार नहीं किया और आशातीत ढ़ंग से सम्मान दिया। दरअसल आस्ट्रिया को जर्मनी से निष्कासित करके बिस्मार्क का मुख्य उद्देश्य पूरा हो चुका था और एक साथ एक से अधिक दुश्मन पैदा करना बिस्मार्क की नीति के विरूद्ध था। अभी बिस्मार्क को फ्रांस से अंतिम हिसाब करना बाकी था जिसके लिए आस्ट्रिया को तटस्थ रखने की जरूरत थी।
World War I, 1914–1918 AD (World War I, 1914–1918 AD)
उत्तरी जर्मन संघ (North German Union)
सेडोवा की विजय के बाद प्रशा यूरोप का एक शक्तिशाली राज्य हो गया। बिस्मार्क ने जर्मन-राज्यों को नये सिरे से संगठित करने का प्रयास किया, किंतु वह दक्षिणी जर्मन राज्यों के विरोध के कारण ऐसा नहीं कर सका। बिस्मार्क ने चार दक्षिणी जर्मन राज्यों-बवेरिया, बटुमबर्ग, बादेन और हेंस को छोड़कर राइन नदी के उत्तर के सभी 21 जर्मन राज्यों का एक उत्तरी जर्मन संघ गठित किया। प्रशा नवीन जर्मन संघ का अध्यक्ष था और बिस्मार्क इस संघ का प्रथम चांसलर नियुक्त हुआ।
फ्रांस से युद्ध , 1870 (War with France, 1870)
बिस्मार्क कहा करता था कि फ्रांस से युद्ध तो इतिहास की तर्कसंगत परिणति है। इससे स्पष्ट होता है कि बिस्मार्क शुरू से ही फ्रांस के विरुद्ध युद्ध की तैयारी में लगा था। प्रशा के उत्थान और आस्ट्रिया की पराजय से फ्रांस में नेपोलियन के प्रति असंतोष बढता जा रहा था। नेपोलियन को अफसोस हुआ कि यदि उसने आस्ट्रिया की मदद की होती, तो फ्रांस की सीमा पर प्रशा जैसे शक्तिशाली राष्ट्र का उदय नहीं होता। अब उसने प्रशा पर दबाव डालना शुरू किया कि उसे उसकी तटस्थता के बदले जर्मन क्षेत्र का कुछ हिस्सा मिलना चाहिए। बिस्मार्क ने उसे कोई साफ उत्तर नहीं दिया। वह कभी पैलेटिनेट की माँग करता, कभी बेल्जियम की तो कभी लुक्सेमबुर्ग की। बिस्मार्क बड़ी चालाकी से उसकी माँगें अन्य देशों के सामने रखकर कूटनीतिक लाभ उठाता रहा। उसने नेपोलियन की पैलेटिनेट की माँग को बवेरिया के शासक को दिखाया क्योंकि पैलेटिनेट उसी के राज्य में पड़ता था। जब दक्षिणी जर्मनी के राज्यों को इसकी जानकारी हुई तो वे क्षुब्ध होकर प्रशा के निकट आने लगे। बेल्जियम की तटस्थता और सुरक्षा के लिए इंग्लैंड प्रतिबद्ध था। जब उसे पता चला कि नेपोलियन की आँख बेल्जियम पर लगी है, तो वह सशंकित हो उठा। रूस की तटस्थता के लिए बिस्मार्क ने जार को बताया कि यदि फ्रांस और प्रशा में युद्ध छिड़ गया तो रूस आसानी से पेरिस संधि की अवहेलना कर सकेगा क्योंकि 1856 की पेरिस की संधि के बाद रूस के कालासागर में नौसेना रखने पर प्रतिबंध लगा दिया गया था। इटली को प्रशा से सहयोग करने का फल मिल चुका था। यद्यपि नेपोलियन ने इटली की मदद की थी, लेकिन उसने विश्वासघात भी किया था, और अभी भी उसकी सेना रोम में थी जो इटली के एकीकरण में बाधक थी। इसलिए इटली की ओर से कोई खतरा नहीं था। आस्ट्रिया तो नाराज था ही। इस प्रकार बिस्मार्क ने फ्रांस को हर ओर से एकाकी और मित्रविहीन बना दिया। अब बस एक उचित बहाना चाहिए था ताकि फ्रांस को जर्मनी पर आक्रामक और प्रशा को रक्षक साबित किया जा सके।
स्पेन के उत्तराधिकार का प्रश्न : बिस्मार्क तो फ्रांस से निपटने के लिए तैयार बैठा था। इसी बीच स्पेन के उत्तराधिकार को लेकर प्रशा और फ्रांस एक-दूसरे के सामने आ गये। स्पेन की जनता ने 1863 में रानी ईसाबेला द्वितीय को देश से निकालकर लियोपोल्ड को नया शासक बनाना चाहा। लियोपोल्ड प्रशा के सम्राट का रिश्तेदार था, इसलिए नेपोलियन तृतीय ने लियोपोल्ड का विरोध किया। यद्यपि नेपोलियन के विरोध के कारण लियोपोल्ड ने ऐन वक्त पर स्वयं अपनी उम्मीदवारी का परित्याग कर दिया, किंतु फ्रांस ने प्रशा से आश्वासन चाहा कि भविष्य में भी प्रशा अपने किसी प्रतिनिधि या राजकुमार को स्पेन का शासक नियुक्त करने का प्रयास नहीं करेगा।
एम्स का तार: स्पेन के उत्तराधिकार की समस्या को लेकर फ्रांस का राजदूत बेनेदेती और प्रशा के शासक एम्स नगर में मिले। प्रशा के सम्राट ने फ्रांसीसी राजदूत के साथ अपनी बातचीत का ब्यौरा तार द्वारा बिस्मार्क को भेज दिया। बिस्मार्क जानता था कि दोनों देशों में संबंध तनावपूर्ण हैं और थोड़ा-सा उकसाने पर आग भड़क सकती है। उसने बड़ी चालाकी से एम्स के तार की भाषा में संशोधन करके इस तरह प्रकाशित किया कि फ्रांस और प्रशा दोनों देशों की जनता उत्तेजित होकर युद्ध की माँग करने लगी।
सेडान का युद्ध : नेपोलियन किसी भी तरह युद्ध के लिए तैयार नहीं था। लेकिन बिस्मार्क के भड़काने पर मजबूरन उसे प्रशा के विरूद्ध युद्ध की घोषणा करनी पड़ी। फ्रांस सामान्य स्थिति में प्रशा का मुकाबला कर सकता था, लेकिन यहाँ तो सब कुछ विपरीत था। फ्रांस मित्रविहीन था तो प्रशा को जर्मन राज्यों का सहयोग प्राप्त था। फ्रांस की सेना की हालत यह थी कि जहाँ तोप थी वहाँ गोले नहीं और जहाँ सेनापति थे वहाँ सेना नहीं। फलतः फ्रांस की हर तरफ पराजय होने लगी। अंत में 15 जुलाई 1870 ई. को सेडान के मैदान में नेपोलियन की ऐतिहासिक हार हुई और उसे 85 हजार सैनिकों के साथ जनरल मोल्ट के समक्ष आत्मसमर्पण करना पड़ा। जर्मन सेनाएँ फ्रांस के अंदर तक घुस गईं और 20 जनवरी 1871 को पेरिस के पतन के पश्चात् युद्ध समाप्त हो गया।
अंततः 10 मई 1871 को फ्रैंकफर्ट में एक संधि हुई जिसके अनुसार फ्रांस को एल्सास और लारेन के प्रदेश, बेलफोर्ट के किले को छोड़कर, जर्मनी को देने पड़े। फ्रांस ने पांच अरब फ्रांक हर्जाने के रूप में देने का वादा किया और हरजाने की अदायगी तक जर्मन सेना फ्रांस में मौजूद रहती।
जर्मन-साम्राज्य की घोषणा (Declaration of the German Empire)
सेडान के युद्ध के बाद नेपोलियन प्रथम के दमन से क्षुब्ध प्रशा ने फ्रांस से पुराना बदला लेते हुए फ्रांस के प्रसिद्ध वर्साय के शीशमहल में 18 जनवरी 1871 को जर्मन साम्राज्य की घोषणा की और जर्मनी के सम्राट के रूप में विलियम प्रथम का राज्याभिषेक किया गया।
इस प्रकार सदियों से बँटे हुए जर्मनी का बिस्मार्क ने अपनी ‘लौह एवं रक्त की नीति’ के बल पर एकीकरण संपन्न कर दिया। इसी चतुरता के कारण विलियम प्रथम ने बिस्मार्क को ‘बाजीगर’ कहा था।
इटली का एकीकरण (Unification of Italy)
नेपोलियन तृतीय :उपलब्धियाँ और मूल्यांकन (Napoleon III:Achievements and Evaluation)