- The Byzantine Empire faced religious controversies such as the Iconoclasm dispute, where the empire split between those who supported the veneration of religious icons and those who opposed it.
Civil Wars:
- During the 11th century, there were several civil wars between rival aristocratic families vying for the throne, leading to instability and internal strife.
Territorial Divisions:
- The Seljuk Turks' expansion into Anatolia in the 11th century resulted in the loss of significant Byzantine territories, splitting the empire's geographical unity.
Latin Occupation of Constantinople (1204-1261):
- The empire was divided during the Fourth Crusade when Western European Crusaders captured Constantinople and established the Latin Empire. Byzantine territories were further fragmented into competing Greek and Latin states.
Rise of Regional Despotates:
- As the Byzantine Empire weakened, regional rulers known as "despots" gained autonomy, leading to administrative and political divisions within the empire.
Ottoman Expansion:
- The Ottoman Turks gradually encroached upon Byzantine territory, leading to the loss of regional control and the division of the empire's territories.