The plebs (from Latin:plebs, plebis) is a part of the Roman people (populus).
The plebs - the plebeians - are defined in opposition to the patricians or later to the nobilitas:it is the part of the people who opposes the oligarchic organization of the city.
In everyday language, the plebs means the people.
Birth
The plebs were born from the secession of 494 BC. BC, when a part of the civic body leaves the city of Rome, when the convocation by the consuls was imminent to face a foreign war, and refuses to return in spite of the prayers of the patricians. It is therefore a war strike.
This secession is probably linked to an economic crisis, the Roman historian Livy invoking the debt slavery of many poor citizens. It was a similar situation that prompted Solon's reforms in Greece. One can also evoke a political disappointment. Indeed, since the establishment of the Republic, the example of Athenian democracy (reform of Cleisthenes) was known, and had raised hopes disappointed by the establishment of the oligarchic Republic, infringing the political rights of a part of the people (in the sense of the Roman populus, that is to say all the citizens).
After giving itself institutions and having taken an oath, the new political entity returns to the city. This legalized permanent revolution, to use Mommsen's expression, manages to balance the oligarchic institutions of Rome, during a century of struggles, between the daily pressure of the tribunician intercessio and the threat of secession, of the strike of the war and defense of the city, when the plebs retreated to the Aventine.
The Law of the XII Tables
The plebs were born to fight against the arbitrariness of the Roman constitution of 509 BC. AD, which is unwritten. In particular, it seeks to limit the consular "imperium". From 462 BC. J.-C., the plebs demand the writing of a law, knowable by all, fixing the extent of these powers. The energetic demands of C. Terentilus Arsa, tribune of the plebs, combined with the secessions, overcame the resistance of the patriciate, with the establishment of the college of decemvirs. The task of codification goes far beyond fixing in writing the powers of the consul. It establishes an equal law for all, in all areas of life; it allows everyone to benefit from the ius matrimonii, which regulates marriages, inheritances and guardianships.
She finally establishes a real harmony between the plebs and the patriciate:the latter retains the monopoly on the consulate, and obtains the prohibition of marriages between patricians and plebeians.
Valeriæ Horatiæ bequests
The Valeriæ Horatiæ laws are the logical and immediate continuation (in 449 BC) of the law of the XII Tables. Submitted to the vote by the consuls Lucius Valerius and Marcus Horatius, they are the recognition by the whole city of the inviolability of the tribunes of the plebs. Thus, the patriciate modifies the Roman constitution to make it patricio-plebeian, and this in three complementary ways which form a coherent whole.
The culprit of an attack on the tribunes of the plebs or the aediles of the plebs (physical attack or attack on their authority) is now consecrated to Jupiter, and the proceeds of the sale of his goods go to Ceres, Liber and Libera. A man consecrated to Jupiter is no longer defended by the city of men, but by Jupiter, to which he belongs. But this consecration does not make him untouchable:it is considered that if the god considers himself aggrieved by the death or wounds of the man who has been consecrated to him, he will punish the person responsible for his divine powers better than the justice of men. In practice, this was tantamount to authorizing lynching, with impunity for those responsible. Finally, by associating the Capitoline triad with the plebeian triad, the patricians recognize from a religious point of view the equality plebeian-patriciate.
From now on, the plebiscites, if they are ratified a posteriori by a senatus-consulte, obtain the value of law binding the whole of the Roman people (whereas previously, only the plebs undertook to respect the plebiscites). The senatus-consulte ratifying a plebiscite are henceforth archived by the city councilors of the plebs. The plebs then intensively use this additional weight given to their decisions to reform the city.
Finally, all the decisions of all the magistrates, and in particular the consuls, are subject to provocatio ad populum, that is to say to an appeal to the people, gathered in centuriate comitia. Death sentences and heavy fines are involved. This innovation brings three important consequences:
* the consuls become truly collegial, with equal powers throughout the year, which is a first limit to their powers;
* after having lost, by the law of the XII Tables, the jurisdiction over capital punishment, the consuls lose their power of coercitio, subject to the tribunician intercession, which legally poses the power of the tribunes against that, suddenly reduced, consuls; and provocatio ad populum is possible only if the tribune deems it necessary.
The consular imperium is thus seriously undermined, with in parallel the recognition of the counter-power of the tribunes, which is however limited:
* the tribunician intercessio is only exercised against the imperium domi:outside the city, it no longer exists, and the only limit to the powers of the consul is a possible intercessio of his colleague;
* until 300 BC. J.-C., the dictators are nowhere subjected to intercessio tribunicienne.
However, the essential is acquired, with the superiority of the tribune over the consul, which is added to the writing down of laws, the election of consuls, etc.
The last important conquest of the plebs was access to the consulship, by the Licinio-Sextian compromise, in 367 BC. However, this is more about the history of the consulate, so for more details see this article.
Institutions[edit]
The Plebeian Triad
Upon its constitution, the plebs decided to build a temple to a trio of gods, symmetrical to the Capitoline triad. This fact alone is indicative of the magnitude of the crisis, and of the desire to settle for a long time in opposition to the Roman patriciate.
The three honored deities are Ceres, Liber and Libera. The temple is built outside the pomoerium, at the foot of the Aventine. It was dedicated in 493 BC. AD by Spurius Cassius. Like the temples of the Capitol, they house protective deities, the treasury of the plebs and their archives. The aediles of the plebs were attached to it.
Tribunes of the plebs
The representatives of the plebs are the tribunes of the plebs. This collegiate institution was first elected by the plebs gathered in a framework similar to the comitia curiates, then by a new assembly, the concilia plebis. They were always chosen from among the plebs, to prevent a patrician from systematically opposing by intercessio the action of the rest of his colleagues. For more details, see the article dedicated to the tribunes of the plebs.
The concilia plebis
The second institution specific to the plebs appears a little later, in 471 BC. AD, with the creation of the concilia plebis (or council of the plebs). Unlike the comitia, which are legal assemblies of the Roman people, convened by a magistrate, which bring together the citizens, the concilia plebis are rallies, voluntary meetings, outside the civic legal framework. Until then, the tribunes of the plebs were elected by the plebeians, gathered in a framework similar to that of the curiate comitia (but which were not the curiate comitia, since the tribunes of the plebs did not have the power to elect them). summon).
Opposing the organization of the city, based on the gentile (or clan) link with the comices curiates, or on wealth (comices centuriates), the plebs chose as the basis of the electoral framework the domicile of the citizen. It therefore resumes the organization into territorial tribes. These tribes have nothing to do with tribes in the sense of differentiated peoples, they are divisions of the territory of Rome. In 471 BC. AD, there are 25:4 urban tribes corresponding to the four regions of Rome; Palatina, Esquilina, Collina and Suburana (inside the city of Rome, roughly within the limits of the pomœrium) and ten rustic tribes (number which will increase to 31 later, Source:M. Le Glay, Y. Le Bohec and J-L Voisin in Histoire Romaine page 34). The counting of individual votes is done within the tribes and determines the opinion of each tribe. Each tribe then has one vote.
The choice fell on the framework of the tribes for several reasons:
* since Servius Tullius, Roman citizenship is determined by belonging to a tribe;
* in this context, no advantage given to the rich or the Seniors;
* the pressures stemming from the patriarchal framework of the gens and which were facilitated by the curiate comitia disappear.
Thus, all citizens who recognize themselves in the plebs, who recognize the authority of the tribune of the plebs, and who have taken the oath, are equal to one another.
The aediles of the plebs
They were created at the same time as the tribunes of the plebs. Just like them, they are inviolable.
They are responsible for maintaining the temple of the plebeian triad, and for ensuring its worship. In the event of a shortage, they are responsible for monitoring the markets and distributing wheat.
Members of the plebs
The plebs are a movement of opposition to the patriciate and to the oligarchic institutions of the city which favor it. It welcomes all those who adhere to its ideals, and thus draws closer to a party, or a trade union. It does not exclude anyone:those who do not want to be part of it are not included:patricians, clients.
Thus, some patricians are part of the plebs, since one is of the plebs by choice (example:Spurius Cassius, consul in 502 BC, 493 BC, 486 BC). -VS.). Marcus Claudius Pulcher, from a patrician family, was adopted by a plebeian and changed his name - nomen - to Clodius - to mark his plebeian preference. There are different social strata within the plebs.
The Quasi-bonus Homines
The wealthiest part of the plebeians, living like some patricians, because they were just below the required tax rate or carried out professions incompatible with noble dignitas. Some of their ascendants or descendants, possessing the cens, will continue the cursus honorum.
* Negatiores are wholesale merchants.
* the argentarii are financiers. This profession requires funds much higher than the minimum tax but is incompatible with a good man[1]. Some were by choice.
All these men act in a coherent social group, they harmonize their interests within the framework of conventus. They are close to the equestrian order which occupies the posts of the Roman magistracy, share the social customs (clientelism, evergetism) and the cultural interests of these.
The middle layer
It is formed by a large layer of craftsmen (artes) of which we have been able to count, on the tombstones, more than 160 specializations against a hundred in France of the Middle Ages.
* The shopkeepers (tabernarii) constitute the most active part of the plebs. They are citizens, freedmen or peregrines. They can own slaves to help them in their work, own their shop or rent it. They are very quickly subject to political vagaries and monetary crises. They are part of the population that can create the troubles that regularly shake Rome. Especially since they form 'collegia under the direction of a magister to defend their specific interests (tax, improvement of supplies, lower interest rates). These groupings have never led to political demands, however their political role is not entirely neutral in the votes and the collegia do not hesitate to campaign. However, the Collegia have been banned on several occasions. The Collegia also had a social role (for funeral rites for example) and reproduced in their institutions the generic hierarchy of society. Their seat is called the scholae. We find for example:
* Sacred College of Tilemakers
* Very august cameramen's workshop
* Sacred Consistory of Weavers
The proletarii
We distinguish the orifices, those who work and the agencies, those who have nothing. They are small craftsmen, day laborers, and even unpaid employees. However, they must know a trade because slaves are most often used for tasks that do not require knowledge. The public authorities take care to ensure that they have work on major urban construction sites, sometimes to the detriment of mechanization[3]. When they have no work, they escape poverty through public distributions and private largesse (fermentaciones and sportule). Their number is estimated at 320,000 at the end of the Republic. Archaeological data and testimonies are very rare, so we know them poorly.
The turba
It is the plebs of the lowlands and it is better known than the proletarii because it intrigued and worried the upper classes much more. Some paupers are ready for any low action for a few coins; civically uncontrollable, they can become dangerous in case of trouble. They live mainly from public distributions. This part of the plebs is invited by Roman officials to leave Rome for the colonies, but without success.
The rural world
The rural world represents 90% of the total population. More than half populated, according to some authors, by slaves. Most free agricultural workers do not own the land they farm or only a few juguères, not enough to live on. In many places, the conditions are akin to forced labor, a wandering life, chronic indebtedness, incompatible with family life. Also, robbery was important, the countryside was not safe and many testimonies show that one could leave life or freedom there. Village chiefs, behaving as chiefs of ancestral clans, enforced their laws through vendetta. The situation changed only slightly throughout the Roman period.