1. The Aztec Civilization: Cortes and his conquistadors encountered the highly advanced and powerful Aztec civilization. The Aztecs ruled over a vast territory in central Mexico and had a complex political, economic, and cultural system.
2. Tenochtitlan: Tenochtitlan, the capital city of the Aztecs, was one of the largest and most impressive cities in pre-Columbian America. It was built on an island in Lake Texcoco and contained grand temples, palaces, and marketplaces.
3. Montezuma: Cortes had initial encounters with the Aztec emperor, Montezuma II, who initially displayed uncertainty and caution in dealing with the Spanish visitors.
4. Malinche (Dona Marina): Cortes gained a crucial advantage when he allied with Malinche, an indigenous woman who served as an interpreter and advisor. She played a vital role in facilitating communication between the Spanish and the various indigenous groups.
5. Indigenous Allies: To conquer the Aztecs, Cortes formed alliances with various indigenous groups who were resentful of Aztec rule and saw an opportunity to gain independence.
6. La Malinche (Doña Marina): Cortes gained a valuable ally in La Malinche, an indigenous woman who served as a translator, advisor, and cultural bridge between the Spanish and the indigenous people.
7. Moctezuma's Treasure: Cortes and his men obtained a vast amount of gold, silver, and other treasures from Moctezuma and the Aztecs, fueling the Spanish quest for wealth.
8. Human Sacrifices: Cortes witnessed and described the widespread practice of human sacrifices among the Aztecs, which deeply disturbed him and further motivated his mission to Christianize the indigenous people.
9. Defeat of the Aztecs: Through strategic alliances, military tactics, and the use of advanced weaponry, Cortes and his forces succeeded in defeating the Aztec Empire in 1521.
10. Fall of Tenochtitlan: Cortes led the conquest of Tenochtitlan, destroying much of the city during intense fighting. The fall of the Aztec capital marked a decisive moment in the Spanish conquest of Mexico.
These discoveries and achievements played a significant role in the establishment of Spanish rule in the Americas and had profound consequences for the indigenous peoples and their cultures.