- Chinese Immigrants: Over 250,000 Chinese immigrants came to the United States primarily to work on the transcontinental railroad. Mostly unskilled laborers, they faced racial discrimination and economic exploitation.
- American Railroad Companies: The Central Pacific and Union Pacific Railroad Companies were responsible for hiring and organizing the Chinese workforce, often through "coolie labor contracts" that bound the workers to the companies for an extended period.
- U.S. Government: The U.S. government played a role in shaping Chinese immigration through legislation such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which severely restricted Chinese immigration for decades.
- American Settlers and Laborers: Many American settlers and laborers competed with Chinese workers for jobs, leading to tensions and anti-Chinese sentiments in various regions of the country.
- Discriminatory Policies and Organizations: Anti-Chinese organizations and institutions, such as the Chinese Exclusion League, advocated for policies that marginalized Chinese immigrants and perpetuated racial prejudice.
- Reformers and Advocates: Some reformers, journalists, and activists spoke out against the discriminatory policies and advocated for equal treatment and rights for Chinese immigrants.
- Chinese Communities and Merchants: Chinese communities established Chinatowns and developed networks to support their members, preserve cultural traditions, and navigate the challenges of living in a foreign country.
- Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882: The U.S. government played a significant role in limiting Chinese immigration by passing the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and subsequent laws that restricted Chinese immigrants from entering the country and becoming naturalized citizens.
These are some of the key groups and individuals involved in the history of Chinese immigration to the United States.