Current view of Capitoline Hill. Few remains of the Roman period are preserved on site. The summit is now occupied by the Basilica of Santa Maria in Aracoeli and the Campidoglio square • ISTOCK How the smallest of the seven hills of Rome could become the most prestigious, as indicated by its etymology caput (the "head", in Latin)? The topography gives a first answer:surrounded by steep cliffs, its summit is only accessible by a ramp (the clivus capitolinus ), which makes it a natural fortress offering many possibilities of defense. It also enjoys a strategic position, dominating on one side the Forum and on the other the Champ de Mars to the Tiber. The Capitol (or Mount Capitoline) actually consists of two hills linked together by a depression:to the north, the Arx, considered the citadel of Rome; to the south, the Capitolium, where the religious complex is located. The Etruscans make their mark The history of the Capitol begins in the Bronze Age. The remains of archeology testify to an early occupation of the site, from the 14th th century BC. J.-C., but it is necessary to wait for the Roman time so that the hill is truly urbanized. According to tradition, shortly after the founding of the city in 753 BC. J.-C., Romulus would have created an asylum (asylum ) between the two hills. A sacred refuge intended to welcome any individual, whatever their condition, it was also a convenient means of populating the new city. It was also on the Capitol that a resounding betrayal was played out:according to legend, Tarpeia, daughter of the governor of the citadel, would have opened the gates of the city to Tatius, king of the Sabines, the sworn enemies of the Romans. As the price for her betrayal, she was to receive the gold jewelry worn by the Sabines. But these added their shields, crushing Tarpeia under their weight. It left its name to the Tarpeian rock, from the top of which some prisoners condemned to death were hurled until the end of the Republic. This place of execution marked the spirits so much that we still remember the famous adage which reminds us that disgrace can quickly follow glory:"It is not far from the Capitol to the Tarpeian rock. » It was during the Etruscan period of Rome, from the VIII th at VI th century BC. J.-C., that the Capitol takes all its religious importance, with the construction of the temple of Jupiter. From the VIII th at VI th century BC. J.-C., under the Etruscan kings, the Capitol takes all its importance with the construction of the temple of Jupiter. According to the Latin historian Livy, the work undertaken by Tarquin the Elder would have been completed by Tarquin the Superb, but due to the hasty departure of the tyrant, the temple would not have been consecrated until 509 BC. J.-C., first year of the Republic. Impressive in size (nearly 63m long and 53m wide), it is dedicated to Rome's three patron deities, known as the "Capitoline Triad":Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Very Good, Very Great) – the most important –, Juno and Minerva. Beyond its religious dimension, the construction of the temple had a strong political significance from the outset:it was a question of symbolizing the power of Rome by competing with the temple of Jupiter located in Alba, its great rival. "Woe to the vanquished! » In 390 BC. BC, Rome experienced the first disaster in its history:the Gauls established in the Po plain invaded Etruria under the leadership of their chief Brennus. Against all expectations, they defeated the Roman army, seized Rome, sacked it and set it on fire. The population that was not massacred as well as the soldiers present in Rome find refuge on the Capitol. Then begins a siege that will last seven long months. One night, the Gauls attempted by surprise to seize the citadel which, according to Livy, owed its salvation only to the geese raised there in honor of Juno:whereas neither the sentinels not even the dogs had perceived anything abnormal, it was their cries that gave the alert, allowing the garrison to repel the enemy assault. Faced with this unexpected resistance, Brennus ended up withdrawing, not without having obtained the payment of a large ransom and launched his famous "Vae victis ! ("Woe to the vanquished!"). To celebrate the departure of the Gauls, games were held on the Capitol in honor of Jupiter, whose role in this happy ending was considered decisive. It is also at this time that the construction of the temple of Juno Moneta (“she who warns”) dates back, in place of the ancient sanctuary where the famous geese resided. A surprising rite has also been linked to the Gallic invasion:according to Pliny the Elder, the Romans organized an annual procession in which a goose was carried on a luxurious litter. Along the way, dogs were crucified alive on poles; they thus paid for their negligence in not having barked when the Capitol had been threatened. In reality, this rite, whose origin is difficult to specify, seems to predate these events. A temple that has been remodeled several times The first centuries of the Empire were marked by the embellishment work on the Temple of Jupiter, which was destroyed several times and rebuilt with ever greater magnificence. Emperors left their mark there:Augustus who, to assure the newly founded empire of the support of the triad, made an impressive offering of gold and precious stones, Vespasian and above all Domitian, who gave the temple its final form and more dazzling. In the surroundings, sanctuaries and other places of worship are multiplying. But at V e century begins the tearing to pieces of the temple of Jupiter, victim of the fight against paganism as much as of the barbarian invasions:all that is precious is torn off and stolen, the statues are looted or destroyed. During the Renaissance, a palace was built on its ruins. The site now houses the Capitoline Museums, where many remains are on display. Also read:The Roman aqueducts, these masterpieces of Roman engineering The Temple of Jupiter was one of the most imposing and luxurious in Rome. Built on an Etruscan model, it had the particularity of having a triple cella . The cella designated the small room, generally closed to the public and reserved for priests, which housed the statue of the divinity. Jupiter Capitoline's had three, one for each member of the triad. The statue of Jupiter was logically enthroned in the cella central, those of Juno and Minerva in the cellae sides. The temple was originally built of wood and tuff, a soft local rock of volcanic origin. Ravaged several times by fires and regularly struck by lightning, it was often restored and even, twice, entirely rebuilt, to become an increasingly sumptuous temple. The marble succeeded the tuff, the massive Doric columns were replaced by elegant columns of Corinthian style. It was under the reign of Domitian (AD 81-96) that it surpassed all earlier versions in splendor:its roof was covered with gilded tiles, its doors plated with gold blades; a gigantic chryselephantine statue (in gold and ivory) of Jupiter was erected, comparable to that of Zeus at Olympia, one of the seven wonders of the world. Statue traffic jam It was not, however, the only place of worship in the Capitol. It was surrounded by a vast sacred space which occupied the entire top of the hill. There was a multitude of smaller temples, altars and shrines. Several were consecrated to Jupiter in different attributions:temple of Jupiter Tonnant, Jupiter Guardian or Jupiter Férétrien, altar of Jupiter Savior; there were also the temples dedicated to other deities such as that of Mars the Avenger or Venus Erycine; the temples of allegorical deities:Fides (Good Faith), Mens (Reason) or Ops (Abundance). So many tight constructions, crushed under the mass of the temple of Jupiter. A walker in Imperial Rome would also have observed a veritable heap of statues, columns and various trophies:colossal statues of Jupiter (one was so large that it was said to be visible from Alba, nearly 20 km!) and Hercules, Mars, Castor and Pollux, and dozens of other deities. It was also customary to raise statues in honor of famous Romans:kings of Rome, former consuls, emperors... There were so many of them that they ended up being cramped and it took several times move some to free up space. All sorts of activities came under the patronage of the Capitoline gods. It is within the temple of Jupiter, in a stone chest, that the Sibylline Books were deposited, collections of prescriptions supposed to contain the destiny of Rome. Bought at a high price from the Sibyl of Cumae by Tarquin the Superb, they had to be kept in a safe place. They were consulted in case of prodigy or in critical situations, to know which god to appease and by which rites. When they were destroyed in 83 BC. J.-C. by a fire, it seemed essential to reconstitute them quickly. We then collected the prophecies of other sibyls, collected elsewhere. A highly political summit It was also on the Capitol that the consuls, supreme magistrates of the Republic, performed a number of political acts. They officially took office there in a ritualized ceremony:after going up in procession to the Capitol, they consulted the auspices and offered a sacrifice to Jupiter in the name of the Republic. They then gathered the Senate in front of the doors of the temple for an inaugural session, during which the military expeditions to come were decided. Returning from the campaign, the victorious generals crossed the Forum and went up to the Capitol to give thanks to Jupiter and offer him a share of the booty. At the end of their one-year term, the consuls were represented by statues, which jostled each other on the Capitol esplanade. The Capitol is also part of the history of Roman law. Evidenced by the presence of the temple of Fides (Good Faith), guardian of commitments and treaties, kept in this place under his protection. The Tabularium, a building built on the slopes of the Arx, housed the state archives – laws, decrees and other official documents transcribed on wax tablets (tabulae ). The texts of laws and treaties even invaded the walls of temples and the bases of statues, engraved on bronze tablets. In addition to their religious function, the temples of the Capitol also served as places of oath taking, vaults, and even museums! A Roman temple could contain considerable wealth, if it presented sufficient security conditions. Several on the Capitol played this role:the Temple of Mars the Avenger, the Temple of Ops, which housed within its walls the colossal sum of 700 million sesterces deposited by Julius Caesar, and above all the Temple of Jupiter which, in because of its fame, was used for a very long time as a place of deposit of treasures hidden in the very throne of the statue of the god. A temple also occasionally served as a "museum". There were placed a number of votive offerings which, from simple and worthless objects at the start, gradually became more sophisticated works. These temples were open to the public on a fixed date. There were the works of the greatest artists, exhibited as in an art gallery. The temple of Jupiter Capitoline was renowned for the opulence of its interior decoration, in particular thanks to the offerings of Augustus, which came to enrich the many precious objects brought back before him by the victorious generals. This splendor contributed not a little to the unique status of the Capitol, initially a steep hill, which became the jewel and soul of Rome. Find out more • Urbs. History of the city of Rome, from its origins to the death of Augustus, A. Grandazzi, Perrin, 2017.• The religion of the Romans, J. Scheid, Armand Colin, 2017. Timeline 616 BC. AD The Capitoline Hill becomes the sacred center of Rome. The first temple dedicated to Jupiter was erected there.509 BC. AD After the departure of Tarquin the Superb, the last king of Rome, the consul Marcus Horatius Pulvillus inaugurates a temple at the top of the Capitol.83 BC. AD The temple of Jupiter Capitoline is completely devastated by a fire. Sulla begins the construction of a new sanctuary.69 apr. AD During this year of crisis, the Temple of Jupiter and other monuments of the Capitol are destroyed by another fire.78 Domitian undertakes the construction of a majestic new temple at the top of the Capitol, which will be the definitive version.455 The vandal king Genséric plunders Rome for two weeks. He destroys the sanctuaries of the Capitol, including the Temple of Jupiter. The Capitol at the time of the Etruscan kings Around 600 BC. J.-C., civil and religious buildings replace the old huts built by the first inhabitants of the hill of the Capitol. We know that the residential area that occupied it during the first half of the VI e century BC. was then destroyed to lay the foundations of the Capitoline Temple. Although work may have begun during the reign of Tarquin the Elder, it was his grandson, Tarquin the Superb, who resolutely pushed ahead with the construction of the great temple dedicated to Jupiter, facing the Forum. Southeast of the hill was an area devoted to the worship of an indigenous deity, called Mater Matuta. The Providential Aid of the Capitol Geese Livy tells that in 390 BC. J.-C., Rome, endowed with a still insufficient defense system, was attacked by the Gauls and saw its provisions dwindle. Besieged and starving, the Romans took refuge on the Capitol and prepared to devour the geese consecrated since time immemorial to the goddess Juno, who lived in freedom on the sacred hill under the supervision of a guardian. One night, the Gauls tried to climb by surprise to the top of the Capitol, but the geese heard them, and they were repelled by the Romans thanks to the cackles and flapping of the wings of the sacred birds, which awoke the sentinel Marcus Manlius Capitolinus. Erected on the Arx, next to the Capitol, the temple of Juno was given the nickname Moneta, "she who warns", because of this alert which saved Rome and its inhabitants. The Imperial Capitol The Rome of the IV th century was dominated by Capitoline Hill. Building from the Republican era serving as the public archives of the Roman State, the Tabularium linked this hill to the Arx and came to fill the depression baptized asylum . The temple of Juno Moneta was on the highest point of the Arx. At the foot of the hill stretched the Civil Forum, to which were added during the imperial period the forums of Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva and finally Trajan. A day in the skin of Jupiter The General to whom the Senate granted the triumph received the right to present himself for a day before the people as the living image of the highest divinity of the Roman pantheon. The scepter in one hand and a branch of laurel in the other, he displayed these divine attributes on a chariot drawn by four white horses. At the head of a sumptuous procession made up of his soldiers, musicians, animals intended for sacrifice and all the spoils of war, including prisoners, he traveled through the city to the temple of Jupiter. He would then walk up the steps to offer his laurel wreath to the god and honor the debt he had contracted with him before leaving to fight. Excavations on Capitoline Hill have unearthed remains of the Temple of Jupiter, some of which date back to Etruscan times, as well as statues presented as offerings and memorials. Many are on display at the Capitoline Museums in Rome.
