Chinese culture forms a world apart, of strong isolation. Only in prehistoric times, especially the Neolithic, can we point to any contact between such distant worlds. The pottery with painted spirals of the Chinese culture of Yang-Chao, in the III millennium, resembles that of South Russia and the Danube at the same time. It has been brought from the West, perhaps by the first Chinese, farmers and ranchers who arrived from the Turkestan regions, where they were in contact with Caucasians and Indo-Germans and with other Mughal groups, the Uralo-Altaic and Turks.
First agricultural settlements
People lived in the great region we now call China long before the beginning of recorded history . The ancestors of today's Chinese created agricultural settlements near two mighty rivers, the Huang He (Yellow) and the Chang Jiang (Yangtze), about 9,000 years ago.
Near the Huang He or Yellow River, further north, the first agricultural settlements consisted of wooden houses plastered with mud and roofed with reeds. The farmers grew a plant called millet, in addition to fishing in the river and hunting.
Further south, people built houses on stilts on the swampy land near the Chang Jiang or "Long River ». They grew rice on the flooded land and archaeologists have found an early settlement dated to 6000-5000 BC. Excavations have shown that these early Chinese used stone tools and raised buffalo, pigs, and dogs.
Primitive History of Chinese Culture
The emigration of Chinese culture must be related to the movements of peoples in the 3rd millennium, one of which led to the Tocharians (Indo-Europeans) to East Turkestan . The emigration of the Chinese culture must have been rapid, and the Chinese preserved mythical accounts of their origins and their arrival in the territory through the Gobi desert. In the middle of the third millennium they arrived in the Hoang-ho region, under the command of the Patriarch Yao .
Then the Hia and Chang or Yin dynasties are formed. , during which they occupied a fertile area between the Hoang-ho and the Yang-Tse-Kiang. Remains of primitive populations and Mughal elements of the Tibeto-Burman branch and Siamese , which occupied the country, continued to resist Chinese absorption in some southern nuclei.
The Shang dynasty
Around 3000 BC, the inhabitants of these settlements were beginning to protect them with earthen walls. Communities grew larger under the leadership of strong rulers, many of whom appear in the legends of Chinese culture. The rulers passed power to their brothers or sons. The first dynasty, or ruling family, to leave historical evidence was the Shang.
The Shang dynasty, which ruled a large area around the Huang He River, dates from 1766 B.C. Around this time, the Chinese learned to make bronze, and the people of the Shang period used this knowledge to make tools, weapons, and vessels.
The people of the Shang period were ruled by a priest-king who was called "Son of Heaven ». He worshiped the spirits of the royal ancestors and consulted them in the most important decisions; there were also many gods, especially that of the sun -considered a father figure- and the earth, a mother figure. The Shang kings and their nobles hunted deer, wild boar, tigers, and wolves. It is thought that they had several capitals, one after another, and it is known that around 1400 B.C. they made Anyang their capital.
Anyang, capital of Chinese culture at the time of the Shang Dynasty
Anyang grew to become a symmetrical city outside the city, with palaces and temples for the king and nobles, who traveled in luxury on horse-drawn chariots. The houses of normal people were made of adobes and reeds, with thatched roofs.
Many Shang relics have been found in Anyang, including more than 10,000 pieces of bone and tortoise shell covered in writing. The Shang script has more than 3,000 signs and was an ancient form of Chinese pictographic writing. These bones and fragments of tortoise shell are called oracular bones, since they were used as a means of contacting the gods. Questions were written on them and then heated until they broke. The priests examined the fragments and, presumably, the shape of the fragments answered the questions.
To the west, the territory was ruled by another dynasty, called Chou, whom the Shang considered barbarians . However, both groups lived together peacefully for many years. Later, the Chou tribal warriors fought long and hard against the Shang and ended up defeating them.
The Chou dynasty in Chinese Culture
The Chou became the ruling dynasty around 1050 BC, and the ruler divided his kingdom into more than a hundred states, each led by a local chief . To control the new lands, the Chou rulers created a feudal system some 2,000 years before something similar appeared in Europe. Below the sovereign, the Chou ruling class was made up of five categories of nobles. Each category leased land to the nobles of the category immediately above its own and all the land was worked by commoners, who also had to take care of their own land, helped by the lowest class of Chou society, the slaves.
The sovereign resided in the capital, Hao, near present-day Chi'an, near the banks of the Huang He River. Each Chou sovereign was succeeded by his eldest son, and all endeavored to keep the states united. .
Yu's fall
However, in the 8th century B.C. a weak Chou sovereign caused trouble. He was called Yu and he was not a good ruler. He spent much of his time with his mistress and his behavior greatly angered the nobles, especially those who were relatives of his wife. Eventually, they lost patience with him and overthrew him.
A legend from Chinese culture provides us with a colorful account of Yu's downfall. According to the story, one day Yu decided to play a prank to amuse his mistress. He ordered fires to be lit on top of the hills surrounding the capital, which was the agreed signal to warn the nobles that it was in danger of attack. The nobles immediately dispatched their armies, only to find that there was no such threat and that it was all a joke. While Yu and his mistress found the soldiers' anger amusing, others were less amused.
Yu's father-in-law was particularly angry. He raised an army among the western tribes and led an actual invasion. Yu ordered the fires to be lit again, but this time the nobles ignored the signal. Yu was killed and his lover kidnapped by the warriors.
Yu's son succession
In 771 BC, Yu's son, the new ruler, moved the Chou capital further east to Luoyang. The individual states of the Chou kingdom then began to separate territorially, going to war with each other more and more often. Ambitious local lords vied for power, leading to increasing disorder. In these unstable conditions, many thinkers tried to find ways to bring people together in harmony. Among them were two men whose ideas would have a lasting impact on Chinese life:Laozi and Confucius.
The era of Chinese Philosophy of Culture
Laozi
Laozi (a name meaning "Ancient Philosopher ») lived in the 6th century BC. Little is known about him apart from legends, but we do know that he believed that the most important thing for people was to live their lives as simply as possible and in harmony with nature. The Tao of him or «Way “It contains patterns of nature and his later followers, called Taoists, tried to live according to his teachings.
According to legend, Laozi attempted to leave his home state of Honan when he was an old man. But the border guard, who was a great admirer of the Tao, did not let him out until he had written down his teachings, which were only known orally. Laozi agreed and wrote 81 short poems, which have been studied ever since . Experts believe that this book, entitled Te Ching ("The classic of the Path and Virtue ») was probably written by Taoist followers hundreds of years later.
Confucius
Confucius (551-479 BC) is the Latin version of the Chinese title Kongfuzi, which means «Great Master Kong » . It is the title given to Confucius, born Kong Qui, in the Chou State of Lu. Confucius' father died when he was still very young and he worked hard to help his mother. He spent his time studying, as well as practicing archery and music. When he was 22 years old, Confucius became a professor of history and poetry. In addition to these subjects, he also taught his students to think about their lives and how they should live them. These teachings are what make it continue to have followers 2,500 years later.
Fears of Confucius
Confucius was afraid that the fights and wars between the different Chou states would lead to the demise of civilization. He believed that society could be saved if it focused on sincerity and honesty. Confucius received some minor positions in Lu, but the state governor ignored his advice and Confucius resigned around 496 BC. He went into exile along with several of his followers and for 13 years he toured the different courts of the kingdom.
Dissemination of the ideas of Confucius
Towards the end of his life, Confucius spent his time teaching and writing, but it is not clear if any of his writings have survived . However, his disciples put his sayings in writing in a book called Analects.
When Confucius died, he was not well known. His followers spread his ideas and around 200 B.C. his teachings began to have a great influence on the way China was governed.
By the time he passed away, Confucius had seen many of the things he feared come true.
End of the Chou dynasty
In the year 479 B.C. the Chou dynasty found it difficult to control its territory of seven warring states . There were devastating battles between huge armies with horse-drawn chariots, bronze weapons, and deadly crossbows (newly invented in China). The armies had a total of more than six million soldiers and in a later battle, in the year 260 BC, more than half a million combatants were killed.
The long reign of the Chou rulers ended four years later, when the opposing states began to fight .
Among those provinces, the northwestern state of Ch'in proved to be the fiercest and best disciplined militarily. In 221 BC, its governor, Cheng, was able to declare victory over all his rivals and called himself Ch'in Shihuangdi:"The First Emperor of Ch'in ».
The first emperor of Chinese Culture
Shihuangdi became the first emperor of a unified China (the country's modern name comes from the word Ch'in) . Shihuangdi established centralized control for his empire, taking all power away from the local chiefs, who were forced to move to the new capital, Chanyang. He divided China into new districts and the officials who ran them answered directly to him. He also ordered the construction of a network of roads, canals and bridges throughout the empire. He then sent huge numbers of workers to build a great wall in the northern part of the empire, to keep out potential invading armies. .
The "First Emperor" tried to unify as much as possible in the empire. He introduced standard weights and measures and made sure that the characters of the language of the Chinese culture were written the same way everywhere. He then ordered that great bonfires be created so that all known texts could be burned, except those on useful subjects such as medicine, pharmacy, and fortune-telling. The reason was to destroy the books written by people who criticized his rule and to destroy all knowledge of the past. Opposing scholars were thrown into a deep pit and died by the hundreds.
Shihuangdi was nicknamed "Tiger of Ch'in ».
Shihuangdi Protection
He was a tough politician and a strong general, but he was scared to death. In his great palace there were more than 1,000 bedrooms, so that he could sleep in a different one every night, just in case someone wanted to kill him. He also built a special tomb for himself, so that he would be protected after his passing. His tomb contained an army of over 7,000 life-size terracotta soldiers, chariots and horses. This fired-clay army carried real bronze weapons, but they were stolen by grave robbers.
The rise of the Han in Chinese Culture
Shihuangdi died in 210 BC, having been emperor for only 11 years; his son proved to be a weak leader . There were rebellions and a new dynasty, the Ha, took power in 202 BC.
The first Han emperor was Liu Bang, the son of a simple farmer. Liu organized regional provinces similar to those of the Chou era and made peace with the tribes that had threatened to invade China from Mongolia. Liu was not a cultured man, but he ended the harsh laws of the "First Emperor ». The Han dynasty ruled the Chinese Empire for over 400 years and most Chinese today still call themselves Han .
The Han emperors believed in a strong and highly centralized government. Emperor Wu Ti, who ruled from 140 to 87 B.C. he was determined to improve the quality of his bureaucracy and introduced competitive examinations to elect officials. He also founded an imperial university where students learned the classics of Confucianism, which ended up becoming the philosophy of the state.
During Wu Ti's rule the arts flourished. The Han poets wrote in a particularly clear style that is still famous in Chinese cultural literature, while the artists of the time produced beautiful glazed pottery and stone carvings. Most of these artists, professors, philosophers, and officials lived in the Han capital, Changan, which, like all ancient Chinese cities, was laid out in an orderly, symmetrical style.
Chinese Culture Medicine
At the time of the Han dynasty, Chinese medicine was already very advanced. The ancient medicine of Chinese culture was based on the idea that in a healthy person there was a harmony between opposing forces, which would be the basis of acupuncture, which is still used today .
Doctors found pathways in the body that responded to needle stimulation and restored the balance between the two main forces of nature, yin and yang. Yin is the feminine force, associated with earth and darkness, while yang is the masculine force, associated with heaven and light. Acupuncturists insert needles into specific points on the body to bring these two forces into balance and thereby relieve pain.
End of the Han dynasty
In AD 25, the Han capital was moved to Luoyang. Around AD 125, the Han's desire to maintain order was supported by the invention of paper, which made data recording much easier. The Han Empire continued to grow for some time, but eventually collapsed due to rivalries between generals, imperial advisers, and officials . The dynasty ended in 220 AD. and for the next 400 years China was once again divided between warring states.
Sui Dynasty in Chinese Culture
China was reunified during the short rule of the Sui dynasty, between AD 581 and 618. Around this time, the canal system that had been started hundreds of years earlier was rebuilt and expanded. In the year 610 AD Chinese engineers had planned and built the Grand Canal to link the Huang He with rivers further south. This huge canal made it easier to transport rice and other foods from the south to the north of the empire, where most of the population lived. The great canal of the Sui dynasty was carried further south in later years, and is still in use.
The Tang dynasty
In AD 618, a powerful new dynasty took control of the empire. The Tang dynasty would last almost 300 years, in what was a Golden Age for China . During the rule of the Tang emperors, the imperial capital, Changan, grew to become the largest city in the world, housing more than a million people. Many merchants and scholars from the rest of Asia visited it. Buddhism, which had come to China from India some centuries earlier, began to flourish.
In this era of prosperity, rich people led comfortable lives. They lived in brick and wooden houses two or three stories high, surrounded by beautiful patios and gardens, wore luxurious silk suits and had a lot of free time. They liked to listen to music and poetry, as well as play chess and cards. They bought gold, silver, and jade goods, and were especially fond of porcelain bowls, cups, and other vessels. The most delicate porcelain was destined for the use of the emperor, the second category was used by the emperor to make gifts, while the third category was for ordinary use.
Market expansion
The Tang period, China expanded its borders and traded with other lands. Many merchants traveled to and from Central Asia, Persia, and the Mediterranean Sea along the Silk Road, a journey of more than 6,000 kilometers. The goods that Chinese merchants brought west were silk, paper, and porcelain, while foreign merchants brought wool and precious metals to China. Changan's markets were always bustling with activity, and increased trade brought more prosperity to the artisans and farmers of the empire.
The luck of ordinary people also improved during the Tang government and those who stood out for their intelligence had the possibility of rising in rank by passing exams and getting a position among the civil service.
But again a period of great political turmoil rocked China. In the year 868 there was a military rebellion against the Tang dynasty and 13 years later the rebels conquered Changan. Provincial governors declared their independence from the central government, and in 907 the last Tang emperor was overthrown.
Legend of the origin of silk in Chinese Culture
According to a legend in Chinese culture, silk was discovered around 2700 BC. -a thousand years before the beginning of the Shang dynasty- in the palace gardens of a sovereign named Huangdi.
The king asked his wife Xilingshi to find out what was damaging the mulberry trees and she discovered that small worms ate the leaves of the mulberry trees and wove bright white cocoons. She took some of them back to the palace to study and threw one into hot water. To her surprise, a tangled mesh emerged from the cocoon, also verifying that it was formed by a single thread, long and thin .
Xilingshi was so enchanted by the delicate thread that she gathered more cocoons and used her silk to weave a special dress for her husband. She then convinced him to give her a grove of mulberry trees to have a constant supply of cocoons and silk. It is also said that Xilingshi invented the spool to join threads and the loom to weave silk .
It is not known if the legend is based on a real event, but there is no doubt that the Chinese were the first to discover how to make silk and that for 3,000 years they were the only ones to do so.
Confucianism
In the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. the Chinese philosopher Confucius introduced a new way of thinking . Confucius believed that all people had to be sincere, brave and courteous towards others. If the families acted like this, the government and the sovereigns would also be well organized, so that the well-being of an entire kingdom begins in the homes of the people.
Rules of Confucius
Children have to obey their parents, just as normal people have to obey their sovereigns. Confucius put many of his rules in the form of sayings, like this one, for example:"A gentleman is as concerned to know what is right as less important men are to find out what is worth. »
However, while Confucius believed that people had an obligation to obey their sovereigns and rulers, he also believed that these governments had an obligation to their subjects. He believed that the good behavior of sovereigns had a more beneficial effect on ordinary people than laws and punishments .
Confucius went so far as to say that corrupt governments had to be overthrown by his subjects.
Confucianism, philosophy and moral guidance
Today, Confucianism is often considered a religion, but it does not have priests or advocate the worship of gods.
Confucianism is really a philosophy, a moral guide and for good government . Confucius' teachings proved to be tremendously enduring and had an enormous influence on Chinese society for much of the next 2,500 years.
The Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China was part of the construction program of the first Ch'in emperor, Shihuangdi . Although several sections of the earthen wall had already been built by some northern states in 300 BC, it was Shihuangdi who ordered that these short walls be repaired, reinforced, and turned into a continuous stone wall to keep out invaders from the north. .
A force of 300,000 peasants, former soldiers and slaves took 20 years to complete the task. They worked in harsh and cruel conditions, especially during the bitterly cold winters. The men who fell were simply thrown into the foundations of the great wall, which was literally built on their bodies.
Length of the Great Wall of China
When it was completed, around 200 BC, the wall was about 3,400 kilometers long. It reached about 9 meters high and the outside was covered with stone slabs . Above it ran a road wide enough for carts to traverse. There were watchtowers every 90-180 meters and soldiers were stationed inside. In times of danger, a series of fires were lit to warn the soldiers on the wall.
Later other Chinese emperors reinforced and expanded the wall of Shihuangdi; the last great renovation took place 1,500 years later. During the Ming dynasty, which ruled China from 1368 to 1644, the Great Wall was gradually rebuilt to a length of more than 6,000 kilometers, stretching from the mountains of northwest China to the Bo Hai Gulf. Much of the wall still exists today.
Invention of Chinese culture, paper
Scholars in ancient Chinese culture wrote on strips of bamboo (later joined to form books), on wood, or on silk. All that changed in AD 105, when Cai Lun, a court official to Emperor Hoti of the Han dynasty, invented paper.
The first paper was made with silk rags. Then other fibrous materials were used, such as bamboo, mulberry bark or hemp . Raw materials were soaked in water to soften them. They were then boiled and pounded until a paste was formed. The paper was created by inserting a fine bamboo mesh into the paste, which, when removed from the container, was covered with a thin film of fiber. The mesh was pressed to extract the water and then left to dry on a hot wall.
Once dry, the sheet was separated from the mesh and polished on a flat, hard surface.
Later, Chinese papermakers would use old rags, ropes and nets as raw materials . The paper they made was used for wrapping things and for clothing, as well as for writing. The Chinese managed to keep the art of papermaking secret from the world for hundreds of years.