At the Vienna Congress, organized reactionaryism stood as a wall in the way of the smooth development of Europe. The vigilante watchdog of this wall was the fierce reactionary Metternich. But when the flow of the progressive stream hitting the wall increased, it proved to be a wall of sand. The July Revolution of 1830 in France was not inevitable, it could have been avoided with a little prudence. But 1848 was another matter. The French Revolution of 1848 resulted in a total of 17 revolutions in Europe. There is a famous saying that when France sneezes, the whole of Europe catches a cold.
Indeed, in the last decade there were revolutionary changes in the ideological world of Europe. In place of reformist ideology, there was talk of a radical change in the structure of the society. Despite the resistance, the wave of the Industrial Revolution had reached Europe as well. Not only was the number of laborers increasing in the cities, their discontent and organization was also increasing. Now it was completely clear that change in society is not going to happen by changing the king or by embracing reforms.
Common Reasons for the Revolutions of 1848 AD
The repressive policy of the reactionary forces was behind the revolution of 1848, radical changes that were rapidly affecting both economic life and the ideological world. The motto of the Metternich era was all possible opposition to change, due to which the necessary reforms were not being done. The rulers of Europe were not ready for reform. They could not see the blazing longing for change beneath the upper stillness. In the absence of gradual change and reforms, it was natural to have an outburst of discontent and resentment.
The reality was that at the end of the eighteenth century the Industrial Revolution shook the economy of England. Now in Western European countries also industrialization and the use of machines had started rapidly. Due to this capitalist rise, the traditional economy was breaking down, but its new form was not yet fully developed. As a result, Western European countries were passing through a period of severe economic crisis. Every sphere of life in Western Europe was stimulated by new modes of production. The rulers were not even trying to understand the situation. The power of the capitalists was increasing and he was trying to take over the power of governance. The population of the cities was increasing and the laborers were becoming more and more dissatisfied by moving from the village to the city. As the number of laborers in the cities increased and they lived together, their individual discontent was now becoming a collective force. At this time, due to industrial development, there was a need to think afresh about the society. Now the hypocrisy of treating the common man and the labor as a subject was exposed and their real rights were being talked about. This new analysis of society came to be known as socialism. The historical contribution in this direction was made by the German philosopher Karl Marx. He gave a materialistic (dialectical materialism) interpretation of history and described the struggle of different classes with changing modes of production and exchange as decisive in the development of man. In 1848, Marx wrote a small pamphlet 'Communist Manifesto ', which contained the essence of socialist ideology and called for the workers:'The proletariat has nothing but shackles to lose, and the whole world to gain. Therefore workers of the world unite !' Thus it was clear that whatever the main causes of the revolutions of 1848 were in different countries, these fundamental causes were at their root.
France:1848 AD France:Revolution of 1848 AD
In 1830 AD 57-year-old Louis Philippe became the ruler of France, who was 'citizen king due to his liberal views. ' It was said. He had good relations even with the middle class and the workers. He was also sensitive to the growing influence of Napoleon's stories in the country and requested England to get Napoleon's ashes from St. Helena in France. The dead Napoleon was as welcome as the living Napoleon. On the other hand, industries were growing in France. There was also increasing unrest among the workers and the emphasis of socialist ideas among them. In such a situation it was necessary for Louis Philippe to adopt a very dynamic and effective policy.
The French public, plagued by the oppressive regime of Charles X, expected reforms from Louis Philippe. But after the initial enthusiasm, Louis Philippe's weaknesses were beginning to show. Louis Philippe showed religious tolerance after taking office and tried to pacify his opponents in the golden centrist Adopted a policy, due to which every section of France became its opponent.
1848 AD Due to the French Revolution of 1848 AD
Development of Socialism: The background of the French Revolution of 1848 was prepared by the socialists. In France, where industrialists were making profits as a result of the Industrial Revolution, the sufferings and hardships of the workers were increasing. Excess working hours, exploitation of children and women in factories formed the background for the rise of socialist ideology in France. Although the socialist thinkers did not agree among themselves, but all were engaged in favoring the interests of the workers and creating the background of the struggle for them. In fact, the rule of Louis Philippe was based on them in favor of the capitalists. It was certain that such a regime would be opposed by the working class.
Saint Simon He was the first person from France who presented a socialist plan for the working class majority of the society. Russo Book of 'Social Compromise Like the second socialist of France, Louis Blanc, in his book 'Labour Organization ’ rendered the interests of the workers and strongly criticized the economic policies of the government. Louis Blanc declared the government of Louis Philippe as the government of the capitalists and propounded the principle that everyone has the right to work and the state has an obligation to give him work. Louis Blanc inspired the majority of workers to overthrow the monarchy through his socialist ideas. Louis Blanc Book of 'Labor Organization The 1848 revolution had become the bible. According to Marx, Philip's monarchy was like a joint-stock company and Philip's status was only a director of this company, which was using the wealth of the nation and whose benefit was given to ministers, members of the assembly and a limited number of voters. Used to be divided between.
Louis protests by various parties: When Louis Philippe ascended the throne, many ideologies were being propagated in France. The staunch monarchists wanted the restoration of the Bourbo dynasty and wanted the grandson of Charles X to ascend the throne of France. Progressive people were demanding democratic and social reforms. They wanted a workers' government to be established in France, which would help the oppressed or oppressed people around the world. The republicans wanted to end the monarchy and establish a republic in France. The Bonapartist party wanted to put a descendant of Napoleon on the throne by promoting Napoleon's achievements and the dignity of France of his time. Thus almost all the parties of France were revolting to dethrone Louis Philippe. To suppress these rebellions, newspapers were re-established, journalists were punished, and new laws and courts were created to enforce them. Autocracy began to increase. The Lok Sabha was controlled by adopting corrupt means. Suffrage was again limited. The members of the assembly were being lured into their court by giving government inducements. Philip's growing reactionary infuriated the opponents.
Predominance of the middle class: Louis's centrist policy was also a major reason for the revolution. Louis Philippe had given a liberal constitution to the people when he ascended the throne, but the people did not get much benefit from the liberal constitution of Louis Philippe. Money was still the basis of suffrage, so the House of Representatives was dominated by the middle class. Louis Philippe's 'middle-class government' All the rules and regulations were made in accordance with the interests of the middle class. With the help of the middle class, Louis Philippe ruled for 18 years. The lower and working class people were dissatisfied with the policies of Louis Philippe.
Louis Philippe's failed foreign policy: Louis Philippe's foreign policy was very weak and was a complete failure. In the case of Belgium and the Eastern problem, France had to be defeated by England, due to which all the political parties of France became its opponents. In fact, the foreign policy of Louis Philippe was England's policy of becoming a laggard, while the French people wanted France to become the ruler of Europe by adopting a proud foreign policy. Thus the public was also dissatisfied with Philip's foreign policy.
Guijo's conservative policy: Louis Philippe changed 10 ministers in the first 10 years of his rule, but there was no positive solution to the problems. In 1840, Louis made Guijo his prime minister, who was fundamentally conservative and reactionary. It was said about Gijo that 'he does nothing, this is his strength and this is his weakness .’ Guijo was opposed to improving the conditions of the workers and that is why he did not want to make any law for them. Nevertheless, the situation could have been handled with reforms. Louis Napoleon used to say, 'we do not reform, we revolution This is what happened in France.
In the meantime two important events happened. Crops failed in 1845-46. Even dry food became difficult. The people fed up with hunger started riots and the discontent of the common people increased greatly. Secondly, in 1847, the economy of England suffered a major setback. Banks started failing and industries closed down. The economic recession of England had an impact on all of Europe. In January 1848, Tauquil roared in Parliament and asked, 'Will there still be tomorrow waiting?' Gizo smiled as passively as ever. Gradually the people of France and all political parties turned against Louis Philippe.
The Events of the Revolution of 1848 AD
By 1848 AD, the discontent of the people of France reached its peak. The major parties in France were opponents of Louis Philippe. The legitimists were opposed because Philip was not of Bourbo descent and had been a Jacobin in the beginning, the Bonapartists were opposed because he was a hindrance to Napoleon's supporters, while the republicans wanted to establish a republic. The Socialist Party was opposed to Louis because of the deteriorating economic condition of the workers. Catholics were opposed to Guijo because Guijo was Protestant. The middle-class people turned against Guijo because of the rejection of the demand for an increase in the franchise. The demand for an increase in this franchise pushed France to revolution. When Guijo opposed this demand, Dier strongly opposed Guijo, demanding an increase in the franchise.
In 1848, the revolutionaries planned to demand reforms by getting the public to sign in support of the reformist demands and give them a petition to Louis Philippe. Deir and his companions began to organize Reformation banquets at various places in Paris. This method of the reformist movement is the 'reformation feast' in the history of France known as. The people of France celebrated 22 February Birthday of American Revolutionary Leader George Washington On February 22, 1848 AD The day was chosen for revolution. On 22 February, Louis Philippe banned reform banquets and gatherings in Paris. On this, riots started in Paris and the people on the streets of France 'Guijo be destroyed', 'Reformists zindabad ' started shouting. The national defenders sent to establish peace and order refused to open fire on the revolutionaries and the people.
Louis Philippe panicked and announced some reforms by deposing Guijo. When a mob led by republicans surrounded Guijo's house, soldiers opened fire on the crowd while defending Gijo's house, killing 23 revolutionaries and injuring 30. The crowd became agitated for the dead martyrs. On 24 February, the revolutionaries took out a grand procession by carrying the dead bodies of the martyrs in a vehicle. The agitated people were ready to end the monarchy and the slogans of 'reform zindabad' were replaced by ' Republic Zindabad ' The slogans took The poet Lamartine was also unable to tame the crowd. On 24 February, the people of France surrounded the palace and the army refused to protect King Louis Philippe. Louis was forced to abdicate the throne in favor of his grandson, the Count of Paris. Louis Philip Smith disguised as a pseudonym fled to England with his wife and so did Guijo.
French people loot the palace and burn the royal throne. 1848 की क्रांति में भी फ्रांस के बूर्जुआ की प्रमुखता बनी रही, पर यह निश्चित था कि धनिकों की जगह अब छोटे पूँजीपतियों का प्रभाव भी बढ़ चला था। अस्थायी सरकार का अध्यक्ष लामार्टिन नहीं चाहता था कि पेरिस में लोग गणतंत्र की घोषणा कर दें। उसने धीरे-धीरे सारे महत्वपूर्ण पद पूँजीपतियों और मध्यवर्गीय लोगों में बाँट दिये। लेकिन इस बार मजदूर पहले से अधिक संगठित थे। उनके नेता रास्पाइ ने साफ कह दिया कि यदि गणतंत्र की घोषणा नहीं हुई तो मजदूर स्वयं निर्णय करेंगे। इस चेतावनी का असर हुआ और दो घंटे के अंदर ही सारा नगर फ्रांसीसी गणतंत्र के नारों से गूँजने लगा।
1830 की फ्रांसीसी क्रांति (जुलाई क्रांति) (French Revolution of 1830 (July Revolution)
1848 ई. की क्रांति के परिणाम (Results of the Revolution of 1848 AD)
क्रांति का प्रमुख उद्देश्य लुई फिलिप के अप्रगतिशील शासन में सुधारों की माँग थी, किंतु यह सुधारवादी माँग आकस्मिक रूप से गणतंत्र की स्थापना में बदल गई। 1848 की क्रांति के फलस्वरूप फ्रांस के ओर्लियन राजतंत्र (1830-1848) का अंत हो गया और फ्रांस में द्वितीय गणतंत्र की स्थापना हुई। इस क्रांति के साथ ही फ्रांस में समाजवादियों का लुई ब्लांक के नेतृत्व में एक राजनीतिक शक्ति के रूप में उदय हुआ, यद्यपि बाद में गणतंत्रवादियों के समक्ष इनका पराभव हो गया।
इस क्रांति के परिणामस्वरूप नेपोलियन बोनापार्ट के भतीजे नेपोलियन तृतीय को राष्ट्रपति के चुनाव में भारी सफलता मिली और वह द्वितीय गणतंत्रवादी सरकार का प्रधान बन गया।
इसके अलावा, 1848 ई. की क्रांति के फलस्वरूप् यूरोपीय देशों के निरंकुश शासन की नींव हिल गई और राजनीतिक विचारों में परिवर्तन की एक लहर पैदा हुई।
1848 की क्रांति ने सामाजिक एवं आर्थिक समानता पर विशेष जोर दिया। 1848 ई. की क्रांति के फलस्वरूप राष्ट्रीय एकता और संवैधानिक स्वतंत्रता के विचारों का प्रसार हुआ। इस क्रांति ने सामूहिक चेतना के युग का आरंभ किया और यह सिद्ध किया कि राजनैतिक, आर्थिक और सामाजिक अन्यायों के विरूद्ध लड़ने के लिए जनता किसी नेतृत्व की प्रतीक्षा नहीं करती है।
अन्य देशों में क्रांतियाँ (Revolutions in Other Countries)
आस्ट्रिया :आस्ट्रिया में मेटरनिख और उसकी पद्धति के बावजूद प्रगतिशील विचारधाराओं का उत्थान होता रहा था, इसलिए जब 1848 ई. में फ्रांस में क्रांतियों की लहर आई तो आस्ट्रिया में विद्रोह ने विकराल रूप धारण कर लिया। वियेना की जनता ने 13 मार्च 1848 ई. को मेटरनिख एवं सम्राट के महलों को घेर लिया। उत्तेजित जनता ‘मेटरनिख मुर्दाबाद ’ के नारे लगा रही थी। उसके बाद वही हुआ जो इस स्थिति में होता है। पुलिस ने भीड पर गोली चलाई जिसमें कुछ लोग मारे गये। इससे उत्तेजना और बढ गई तथा जगह-जगह बलवे होने लगे। मेटरनिख समझ गया कि अब उसकी सत्ता के अंत का समय आ गया है। स्थिति की गंभीरता को पहचान कर वह अपने पद से त्यागपत्र देकर वेश बदलकर इंग्लैंड भाग गया। उसकी सारी व्यवस्था मिट्टी में मिल गई। किंतु मेटरनिख के पलायन के अतिरिक्त 1848 की क्रांति का कोई नतीजा नहीं निकला। आस्ट्रियन सम्राट का निरकुश शासन ज्यों-का-त्यों कायम रहा।
1848 ई. की क्रांति की प्रेरणा से वियेना, हंगरी, बोहेमिया, इटली, जर्मनी, प्रशा, स्विट्जरलैंड और हालैंड आदि में वैधानिक शासन की माँग को लेकर जन-आंदोलन हुये और उन्हें सफलता भी मिली। विशेष रूप से स्विट्जरलैंड में संघीय गणतंत्र की स्थापना स्थाई सिद्ध हुई।
1848 ई. की क्रांति का मूल्याँकन (Evaluation of the Revolution of 1848 AD)
1848 में सारे यूरोप में छोटी-बड़ी सत्रह क्रांतियाँ हुईं। कहीं तो कुछ ही दिनों में उसे समाप्त कर दिया गया, कहीं कुछ उदारवादी परिवर्तन करने के बाद क्रांतिकारियों का प्रभाव कम होते ही उसे समाप्त कर दिया गया। फ्रांस में कुछ दिनों के लिए मौलिक परिवर्तनों की शुरुआत हुई, पर वहाँ भी लुई नेपोलियन के राष्ट्रपति चुने जाते ही क्रांति का प्रभाव समाप्त हो गया। आस्ट्रिया में मेटरनिख का पतन अवश्य हो गया था, लेकिन आस्ट्रिया अपनी पुरानी नीति पर चलता रहा और आस्ट्रिया या जर्मनी में उदार और प्रगतिशील कार्यक्रम नहीं शुरू हो सके।
1848 की क्रांति इस अर्थ में 1789 और 1830 की क्रॉंति से भिन्न थी कि इसमें पूँजीपतिवर्ग और मजदूर वर्ग के बीच का अंतर्विरोध भी प्रकट होने लगा। इस क्रांति से श्रमिक वर्ग को यह स्थायी सबक मिला कि पूँजीपति वर्ग उसका नेतृत्व करके अपना लाभ उठाता है और वास्तव में वह वर्ग उसका विरोधी है। इस क्रांति के बाद समाजवादी आंदोलनों और संगठन में वैज्ञानिक समाजवाद का प्रभाव बढ़ता गया और समाजवादी संगठन सारे यूरोप में प्रसार पाने लगा।
1830 की फ्रांसीसी क्रांति (जुलाई क्रांति) (French Revolution of 1830 (July Revolution)
नेपोलियन तृतीय :उपलब्धियाँ और मूल्यांकन (Napoleon III:Achievements and Evaluation)