- Unequal treaties: Following China's defeat in the Opium Wars, several unequal treaties were imposed on the country, including the Treaty of Nanking (1842) and the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895). These treaties ceded control of various territories to foreign powers, including Japan, and granted them extraterritorial rights and economic privileges in China.
- Rise of nationalism: During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, nationalism grew stronger in both Japan and China. In China, the Qing Dynasty was weakened and was facing internal rebellions and social unrest. In Japan, the Meiji Restoration in 1868 led to rapid modernization and a desire for expansion and influence in the region.
- Resource competition: China had abundant natural resources, including iron, coal, and other raw materials, while Japan had limited resources. As Japan's economy expanded, its need for access to these resources increased.
- Influence in Korea: Both China and Japan had historical ties with Korea and wanted to exert their influence in the region. Korea had been a tributary state of China for centuries, but Japan sought to break away that connection and establish control over Korea.
Immediate factors leading to war
- The First Sino-Japanese War: In 1894, the First Sino-Japanese War broke out over the issue of Korea. Japan emerged victorious and gained control of Taiwan, the Pescadores, and the Liaodong Peninsula in China.
- The Russo-Japanese War: In 1904, the Russo-Japanese War erupted over competing interests in Manchuria. Japan's victory in this conflict increased its influence in the region.
- The Twenty-One Demands: In 1915, Japan presented the Twenty-One Demands to China, which aimed to further increase Japan's control and influence over China's political, economic, and military affairs. The Chinese government rejected some of the demands, sparking public outrage.
- The Manchurian Incident: In 1931, the Japanese military staged a bombing incident on the South Manchurian Railway in Mukden, Manchuria, as a pretext for invading and occupying the region. The Chinese government was unable to effectively resist the Japanese forces.
- The Shanghai Incident: In 1932, the Japanese military clashed with Chinese forces in Shanghai, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides.
These events led to the escalation of tensions between China and Japan and ultimately culminated in the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, which eventually merged into the wider conflict of World War II.